In the last three decades the two‐process model of sleep regulation has served as a major  conceptual framework in sleep research. It has been applied widely in studies on fatigue and

This paper discusses the two-process model of sleep regulation, its applications in sleep research, and its limitations, suggesting that the model remains useful for integrating sleep and circadian rhythm research.

The two‐process model of sleep regulation: a reappraisal

Light synchronizes mammalian circadian rhythms with environmental time by modulating  retinal input to the circadian pacemaker—the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the

This paper discusses the role of light in synchronizing mammalian circadian rhythms and identifies a distinct ganglion cell type in the mammalian retina that is intrinsically photosensitive and may represent the primary photoreceptors for synchronizing the circadian clock to environmental time.

Phototransduction by retinal ganglion cells that set the circadian clock

The spectral responsivity of ipRGCs is quite broad and peaks at  Thus, ipRGCs represent  a third class of photoreceptors in the  Clearly ipRGCs are important to our welfare and visual

This paper discusses the various models of color appearance, their construction, testing, and applications in colorimetric and imaging contexts.

Color appearance models

Most physiology and behavior of mammalian organisms follow daily oscillations. These  rhythmic processes are governed by environmental cues (eg, fluctuations in light intensity and

The mammalian circadian timing system: organization and coordination of central and peripheral clocks

In the mammalian retina, a small subset of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are intrinsically  photosensitive, express the opsin-like protein melanopsin, and project to brain nuclei involved in

This paper discusses the role of melanopsin in retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) and how its absence affects the pupillary light reflex in mice.

Diminished pupillary light reflex at high irradiances in melanopsin-knockout mice

ipRGCs for nonvisual photoreception. Whether the classical photoreceptors function by  signaling “through” the ipRGCs ( cells onto melanopsin-expressing ipRGCs (18). Differences in

Melanopsin is required for non-image-forming photic responses in blind mice

These intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) help to synchronize  circadian rhythms with the solar day. They also contribute to the pupillary light reflex and other

This paper discusses the discovery and characterization of a novel photoreceptor in the mammalian retina, intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), and their role in synchronizing circadian rhythms and other physiological responses to environmental illumination.

Strange vision: ganglion cells as circadian photoreceptors

The gray lines at the bottom display the ranges of sensitivities for rods (only partially shown),  cones, and intrinsically photosensitive ganglion cells (ipRGCs). The maximum light intensity

This paper discusses the potential for eNpHR-based gene therapy to restore complex visual responses in Retinitis pigmentosa, a degenerative eye disease, and the criteria for selecting patients for this therapy.

Genetic reactivation of cone photoreceptors restores visual responses in retinitis pigmentosa

The function of any neural circuit is governed by connectivity of neurons in the circuit and  the computations performed by the neurons. Recent research on retinal function has

This paper discusses the function of neural circuits in the retina, focusing on the connectivity of neurons and the computations performed by these neurons.

Information processing in the primate retina: circuitry and coding

ganglion cells (ipRGCs). Generally thought of as irradiance detectors, ipRGCs target  numerous brain regions involved in non-image-forming vision. ipRGCs integrate their intrinsic,

This paper discusses the function and diversity of melanopsin-positive intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), which are involved in non-image-forming vision and influence light-dependent behaviors.

Melanopsin-positive intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells: from form to function

Because of its immediacy, the PLR is the most readily quantifiable behavior driven by ipRGCs.  It is known that ipRGCs are necessary for reaching the maximal pupil constriction and for

Protecting the melatonin rhythm through circadian healthy light exposure

It is conceivable that the heterogeneity of EGFP expression among the ipRGCs in our reporter  mouse line reflects a parallel heterogeneity of melanopsin expression among M1 and M2

The paper discusses the morphological and physiological differences between M1 and M2 cells, two types of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in the mammalian retina.

Functional and morphological differences among intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells

Periodic, well timed exposure to light is important for our health and wellbeing. Light, in  particular in the blue part of the spectrum, is thought to affect alertness both indirectly, by

This paper reviews the literature on the acute effects of light on alertness, focusing on the effects of light intensity and spectral distribution, and concludes that more well-powered studies are needed to draw definitive conclusions.

Acute alerting effects of light: A systematic literature review

The photopigment melanopsin confers photosensitivity upon a minority of retinal output neurons.  These intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) are more diverse than

This paper discusses the photopigment melanopsin and its role in photosensitivity in retinal output neurons, specifically focusing on the M4 cell type and its structure, function, and central projections.

Form and function of the M4 cell, an intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell type contributing to geniculocortical vision

In mammals, the pupillary light reflex is mediated by intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin-containing  retinal ganglion cells that also receive input from rod–cone photoreceptors. To

This paper discusses the role of melanopsin and rod-cone photoreceptors in mediating pupillary light responses in humans, and suggests that it might be possible to enhance nonvisual light responses to low-irradiance exposures by using intermittent light to activate cone photoreceptors repeatedly in humans.

Melanopsin and rod–cone photoreceptors play different roles in mediating pupillary light responses during exposure to continuous light in humans

OBJECTIVES: Self-luminous electronic devices emit optical radiation at short wavelengths,  close to the peak sensitivity of melatonin suppression. Melatonin suppression resulting from

This paper investigates the impact of light from computer monitors on melatonin levels in college students, finding that exposure to the blue-light from computer monitors significantly reduced melatonin concentrations.

The impact of light from computer monitors on melatonin levels in college students

M1 ipRGCs provide a unique way to address this question  M1 ipRGCs have large dendritic  fields that stratify near the  field area were different for M1 ipRGCs in control versus IOP-

This paper discusses the effects of glaucoma on retinal ganglion cells (RGCs), specifically how certain RGC subtypes undergo significant changes in dendritic structure after exposure to elevated intraocular pressure (IOP).

Characteristic patterns of dendritic remodeling in early-stage glaucoma: evidence from genetically identified retinal ganglion cell types

Most physiological processes in our body oscillate in a daily fashion. These include  cerebral activity (sleep-wake cycles), metabolism and energy homeostasis, heart rate, blood

This paper discusses the circadian rhythms in the human body, how they are regulated, and their impact on various physiological processes and potential diseases.

Circadian rhythms–from genes to physiology and disease

Light exposure elicits numerous effects on human physiology and behavior, such as better  cognitive performance and mood. Here we investigated the role of morning light exposure as

This paper investigates the effects of morning light exposure on cognitive performance, mood, and well-being, particularly under conditions of sleep restriction, and finds that exposure to artificial morning dawn simulation light improves these factors with minimal impact on circadian phase.

Effects of artificial dawn and morning blue light on daytime cognitive performance, well-being, cortisol and melatonin levels

It is established that ipRGCs provide the primary environmental light input to the  properties  of ipRGCs are distinct from rod and cone photoreceptors; the light response of ipRGCs has a

This paper discusses the role of intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in the pupillary light reflex and circadian rhythm, and suggests a clinical framework for using the pupil light reflex to evaluate inner and outer retina function in the detection of retinal eye disease.

Intrinsically photosensitive melanopsin retinal ganglion cell contributions to the pupillary light reflex and circadian rhythm

Sight-restoring therapy for the visually impaired and blind is a major unmet medical need.  Ocular gene therapy is a rational choice for restoring vision or preventing the loss of vision

This paper discusses the use of gene therapy as a method for restoring vision or preventing vision loss in the visually impaired and blind.

Gene therapy for blindness

The ipRGCs regulate pupil size through the integration of extrinsic signals from rods and   throughout the plasma membrane of ipRGCs [28]. The ipRGCs also directly contribute to the

This paper discusses the pupillary light reflex (PLR) and its potential as a diagnostic tool for a range of clinical conditions, including neurodegenerative disease, exposure to toxic chemicals, and infectious disease.

Eyeing up the future of the pupillary light reflex in neurodiagnostics

The amygdala receives direct inputs from ipRGCs and indirect retinal inputs through the  superior colliculus and thalamus. In turn, the amygdala has direct projections to the

This paper discusses the effects of light on cognition and sleep, and how understanding these effects can improve well-being.

Can light make us bright? Effects of light on cognition and sleep

Rods, cones, and a newly discovered photoreceptor, the intrinsically photosensitive  retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) [6], participate in circadian phototransduction (how the retina

This paper discusses the use of light therapy as a non-pharmacological tool to improve sleep efficiency and consolidation in patients with Alzheimer's disease and related dementia (ADRD), and its potential to improve visibility and reduce the risk of falls in these patients.

Light therapy and Alzheimer's disease and related dementia: past, present, and future

presumptive On–DSGCs were easily distinguishable from other large-field, On-stratifying  RGC subtypes in mice, such as the M2 and M4 intrinsically photosensitive RGCs (ipRGCs)

This paper discusses the genetic dissection of retinal inputs to brainstem nuclei controlling image stabilization in mice.

Genetic dissection of retinal inputs to brainstem nuclei controlling image stabilization

In mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) contains a central clock that synchronizes  daily (ie, 24-h) rhythms in physiology and behavior. SCN neurons are cell-autonomous

The suprachiasmatic nuclei as a seasonal clock

In conclusion, ipRGCs can signal light continuously for at least 10 h and can probably track   bipolar cells presynaptic to ipRGCs may be able to respond to light continuously for 10 h.

This paper discusses the ability of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) to signal light continuously for at least 10 hours, suggesting that they can track gradual irradiance changes over the course of the day.

A retinal ganglion cell that can signal irradiance continuously for 10 hours

ipRGCs of the rabbit retina with a commercial antibody to connexin 45 (Cx45) (MAB3101;  Millipore), which fortuitously stains the ipRGCs in  this antibody labels ipRGCs was obtained by

This paper discusses the organization of the retina and how certain cells break the stratification rules of the retina.

ON inputs to the OFF layer: bipolar cells that break the stratification rules of the retina

In mammals, the entrainment pathway involves ipRGCs that form the retinohypothalamic   twilight is either less precise or the ipRGCs themselves show heterogeneity in their responses

This paper reviews the effects of artificial light at night (ALAN) on melatonin production in vertebrates, discussing how ALAN disrupts natural photic environments and its effect on melatonin and circadian rhythms.

Light pollution, circadian photoreception, and melatonin in vertebrates

Photoreceptor degeneration due to retinitis pigmentosa (RP) is a primary cause of inherited  retinal blindness. Photoreceptor cell-replacement may hold the potential for repair in a

This paper discusses the potential of photoreceptor cell-replacement for repair in retinitis pigmentosa, a primary cause of inherited retinal blindness, using human pluripotent stem cells.

Function of human pluripotent stem cell-derived photoreceptor progenitors in blind mice

Phototransduction in mammalian ipRGCs more closely resembles that of invertebrate than   In the retina, ipRGCs provide excitatory drive to dopaminergic amacrine cells and ipRGCs are

Intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells

of the light-activated Ca 2+ signals in ipRGCs and to determine the relationship of these   enriched cultures of melanopsin-expressing ipRGCs from neonatal rats and recorded light

This paper discusses the light-activated Ca 2+ signals in ipRGCs and the relationship of these responses to light-driven action potential firing.

Light-evoked calcium responses of isolated melanopsin-expressing retinal ganglion cells

of ipRGCs have shown that they project onto the pretectum which is known to control pupillary  constriction. Whenever ipRGCs  On the one hand, the photoresponse of ipRGCs encodes

This paper investigates the effect of colour temperature and illuminance on visual response, questioning whether the pleasing sensation comes from facilitation of visual performance or from subjective appraisal.

Kruithof's rule revisited using LED illumination

, and the absorption spectrum of melanopsin in ipRGCs, do not match those of the classical   It will, however, be a relatively better stimulator of melanopsin-containing ipRGCs and the

This paper investigates the effectiveness of short-wavelength LED light sources in the treatment of Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD), finding that they may be effective at fewer lux than traditional fluorescent sources.

Lux vs. wavelength in light treatment of Seasonal Affective Disorder

Light affects animal physiology and behavior more than simply through classical visual,  image-forming pathways. Nonvisual photoreception regulates numerous biological systems,

An extended family of novel vertebrate photopigments is widely expressed and displays a diversity of function

The past twenty years have witnessed the most remarkable breakthroughs in our understanding  of the molecular and cellular mechanisms that underpin circadian (approximately one

The mammalian circadian timing system and the suprachiasmatic nucleus as its pacemaker

in the Opn4 −/− mice, we needed first to examine whether ipRGCs develop normally in these  mice. We performed a quantitative examination of the morphological features of ipRGCs in

This paper examines the functional consequences of cone pathway signaling to M1 and M2 cells, finding that the On pathway forms the primary excitatory synaptic input to both M1 and M2 cells, with this input being more influential in shaping the light-evoked responses and resting membrane properties of M2 cells than M1 cells.

Differential cone pathway influence on intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cell subtypes

This paper discusses the increasing prevalence of artificial light and its impact on natural darkness, including effects on wildlife, human health, and cultural heritage.

The end of night: searching for natural darkness in an age of artificial light

Daylight stems solely from direct, scattered and reflected sunlight, and undergoes dynamic  changes in irradiance and spectral power composition due to latitude, time of day, time of

The role of daylight for humans: gaps in current knowledge

Likewise, if during the night individuals are acutely exposed to light, these photons signal  the ipRGCs to shut down pineal melatonin production. In both of these scenarios, ie, extension

The photoperiod, circadian regulation and chronodisruption: the requisite interplay between the suprachiasmatic nuclei and the pineal and gut melatonin

Circadian timekeeping allows appropriate temporal regulation of an organism’s internal  metabolism to anticipate and respond to recurrent daily changes in the environment. Evidence

This paper reviews the impact of genetically or environmentally induced molecular clock disruption and the interplay between the circadian system and metabolic processes, discussing mechanisms responsible for diet-induced circadian desynchrony and the impact of nutritional cues in inter-organ communication.

Off the clock: from circadian disruption to metabolic disease

This study examined whether diurnal non-image forming (NIF) effects of illuminance level  on cognitive task performance depend on task difficulty and time of day. We employed a

This study investigates the effects of illuminance level on cognitive task performance, specifically working memory, and how these effects may depend on task difficulty and time of day.

Shining light on memory: Effects of bright light on working memory performance

Intriguingly, a small population of M1 ipRGCs have  in the axon collateral terminals of  ipRGCs; and (3) fluorescence  We further demonstrate that elimination of M1 ipRGCs attenuates

This paper investigates the role of M1 ipRGCs in visual function, demonstrating that elimination of M1 ipRGCs attenuates light adaptation, and suggesting that ipRGCs transmit luminance signals retrogradely to the outer retina through the dopaminergic system, influencing retinal light adaptation.

M1 ipRGCs influence visual function through retrograde signaling in the retina

cells (ipRGCs) have an expansive arbor of dendrites that form a ‘photoreceptive net’ for  circadian phototransduction 25. The ipRGCs  is mediated principally by the ipRGCs, studies on

This paper discusses the effects of different types of light on the suppression of melatonin in humans, with a focus on the potential for certain types of light to be used as a countermeasure for circadian and sleep disruption.

Short‐wavelength enrichment of polychromatic light enhances human melatonin suppression potency

ipRGCs) 27 and ipRGCs are sensitive to dim light levels 28 . Alternatively, the acute increase  of NREM and REM sleep due to LDim may be mediated by decreased melatonin levels, as

Dim light at night disturbs the daily sleep-wake cycle in the rat

in a distinct ganglion cell population in humans, the ipRGCs. The melanopsin photopigment  is diffusely expressed along the dendrites and soma of ipRGCs (∼3 molecules μm −2 ) 7

This paper discusses the role of melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in retinal disease, and how they can be used to measure inner and outer retinal function.

Melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in retinal disease

The functioning of the ipRGCs is hypothesized also to be suboptimal in ADHD. In our  preliminary web survey, 69% of adults with ADHD reported oversensitivity of their eyes to bright

This paper discusses the role of the circadian system in the etiology and pathophysiology of ADHD, suggesting that a significant portion of ADHD symptoms may be the result of chronic sleep disorders, particularly delayed circadian rhythm.

The role of the circadian system in the etiology and pathophysiology of ADHD: time to redefine ADHD?

of ipRGCs in the human retina (66, 67) may subserve different NIF functions. The M1 subtype  of ipRGCs  is limited to M1 ipRGCs and that activation of these ipRGCs with light flashes is

Temporal integration of light flashes by the human circadian system

It has been shown that the ipRGCs in rats and monkeys will depolarize in response to light  with a peak spectral sensitivity around 480 nm, even with the blockage of synaptic input from

This paper discusses the relationship between light exposure, circadian rhythms, and cancer, with a focus on the role of melatonin and the impact of light on its production.

Light during darkness and cancer: relationships in circadian photoreception and tumor biology

in type II ipRGCs, whereas the type III ipRGCs are relatively less affected.  ipRGCs provide  the slow-transient component we observe in type I SCN neurons, whereas the type III ipRGCs

This paper investigates the responses of neurons in the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to light and dark adaptation, focusing on the relative contributions of different photoreceptive systems in shaping the photic signal influencing the circadian clock.

Responses of suprachiasmatic nucleus neurons to light and dark adaptation: Relative contributions of melanopsin and rod–cone Inputs

We investigated sleep quality and melatonin in 12 adults who wore blue-light shield or control  eyewear 2 hours before sleep while using a self-luminous portable device, and assessed

This paper investigates the effect of blue-light shield eyewear on sleep quality and melatonin levels in adults using self-luminous portable devices before sleep.

Protective effect of blue-light shield eyewear for adults against light pollution from self-luminous devices used at night

Recent evidence, however, demonstrates that ipRGCs also  If this effect is mediated by  ipRGCs, which have reduced  this effect is likely mediated by ipRGCs. Modern sources of LAN

This paper discusses how exposure to light at night (LAN) can have negative effects on mood and behavior, potentially contributing to altered mood regulation.

Nocturnal light exposure impairs affective responses in a wavelength-dependent manner

Light around twilight provides the primary entrainment signal for circadian rhythms. Here we  review the mechanisms and responses of the mouse and human circadian systems to light.

This paper reviews the mechanisms and responses of the mouse and human circadian systems to light, focusing on the role of photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (pRGCs) and the photopigment melanopsin (OPN4).

Circadian photoentrainment in mice and humans

The ipRGCs integrate and transmit photic information via the  Besides the SCN, ipRGCs also  project to a diverse set of  As such, light conveyed by ipRGCs has direct effects on a variety

This paper discusses how different properties of light influence sleep and wakefulness in humans, and how this knowledge can be used to improve health and well-being and optimize treatments of chronobiological disorders.

Light modulation of human clocks, wake, and sleep

The aim of the present study was to evaluate sleep quality in myopic children and adults.  This cross sectional study surveyed 486 participants aged from 10 to 59 years with refractive

The paper discusses the correlation between myopia and sleep quality in children and adults, finding that children with high myopia had the poorest sleep quality.

Decreased sleep quality in high myopia children

IpRGCs signal to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (biological clock) in our brain and from there,   It is known that ipRGCs are especially sensitive to the blue part of the light spectrum (~ 480

This study investigates the non-image forming effects of illuminance level on physiological arousal and task performance, finding that illuminance level impacts heart rate and skin conductance level, but not systolic blood pressure, and that physiology and performance seem to be affected independently.

Non-image forming effects of illuminance level: exploring parallel effects on physiological arousal and task performance

The term “circadian rhythms” describes endogenous oscillations with ca. 24-h period associated  with the earth’s daily rotation and light/dark cycle. Such rhythms reflect the existence of

This paper reviews the molecular regulations of circadian rhythm and its implications for physiology and diseases, discussing the role of the biological clock in controlling physiological functions of almost all tissues and organs, and its implications in human pathologies such as cancer and inflammatory diseases.

Molecular regulations of circadian rhythm and implications for physiology and diseases

effects are mediated, although not equally, by the five photoreceptor classes in the  human retina: the cones, the rods, and the intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs)

This paper provides a set of guidelines for reporting the stimulus conditions involving light as an intervention in chronobiology, sleep research and environmental psychology experiments.

How to report light exposure in human chronobiology and sleep research experiments

melanopsin is a functional circadian photopigment in ipRGCs. In blind humans, melanopsin   The discovery of melanopsin and ipRGCs is a crowning scientific achievement, has led to a

This paper discusses the discovery of melanopsin and ipRGCs, which has led to a revolution in our understanding of circadian photoreception, and is beginning to guide scientists into new uses of light for circadian, sleep, and other disorders.

Photoreception for circadian, neuroendocrine, and neurobehavioral regulation

Occupants are active participants in their built environment, affecting its performance while  simultaneously being affected by its design and indoor environmental conditions. With recent

This paper reviews existing studies that use computer-based modeling and simulation to guide occupant-centric building design, covering metrics, tools, methods, and supporting mechanisms, and identifies gaps and future research directions.

Simulation-aided occupant-centric building design: A critical review of tools, methods, and applications

Melanopsin-containing ipRGCs have a specialized non-visual retino-hypothalamic tract   synapse away from ipRGCs, and the numerous projections of just one key target of ipRGCs, the

This paper discusses the role of light, melatonin, and brain circuitry in regulating sleep and wakefulness, and how these factors can affect alertness and cognitive performance.

What keeps us awake?—the role of clocks and hourglasses, light, and melatonin

The most interesting aspect of this study is that mood effects were absent in mice lacking  ipRGCs, raising the prospect that future studies selectively deleting subsets of ipRGCs (Schmidt

This paper discusses the role of the circadian clock in mood disorders, specifically depression and bipolar disorder, and reviews animal models used to investigate the causal connection between circadian rhythms and mood.

The role of the circadian clock in animal models of mood disorders.

The ipRGCs have initiated a veritable revolution in the lighting industry and led to complex  questions as to what kind of light and how much should be given to whom when—to which

Perspectives in affective disorders: Clocks and sleep

Another molecular marker, Tbr2, identifies RGCs that are hardwired during developmental  stages and they could be precursors of ipRGCs [312]. Other single subtype of RGCs appears

The paper discusses the current status and challenges of neuroprotective strategies for retinal ganglion cell degeneration, focusing on the role of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in the retina and the brain, and the potential for therapies directed at RGCs to prevent the progression of optic neuropathies.

Neuroprotective strategies for retinal ganglion cell degeneration: current status and challenges ahead

Our results show that the total mean number ± standard deviation of ipRGCs in the albino  rat is 2047 ± 309. Their distribution in the retina seems to be complementary to that of Brn3a +

This paper discusses the distribution of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) in albino rats and their role in the synchronization of the circadian rhythm.

Number and spatial distribution of intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells in the adult albino rat

The SCN also receives indirect input from ipRGCs via the intergeniculate leaflet and  input from rods and cones [27,28,29]. Indeed, photo entrainment persists in melanopsin-deficient

This paper discusses the impact of artificial light at night (ALAN) on circadian rhythms and its potential link to increased incidence of cancer, with a focus on the role of core clock genes in oncogenesis.

Light pollution and cancer

The low spatial resolution of ipRGCs is evident in mice, where ipRGCs interconnect to form  a  Whether these outer retina photoreceptor inputs are extrinsic to ipRGCs or otherwise is still

The paper discusses the contributions of cone and melanopsin luminance signaling to human brightness perception, providing a new framework for evaluating the physiological basis of brightness perception and practical applications for the development of energy efficient light sources.

Cone and melanopsin contributions to human brightness estimation

The enrichment of Mel+ ipRGCs among surviving RGCs indicates a resistance to cell death,  which has also been observed for ipRGC subpopulations in injury models such as axotomy

The paper discusses the effects of Alpha- and Gamma-Protocadherins on neuronal survival and dendritic self-avoidance, and how they interact to mediate a variety of developmental processes.

Combinatorial effects of alpha-and gamma-protocadherins on neuronal survival and dendritic self-avoidance

Melanopsin-expressing intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs) combine   pretectal olivary nucleus (PON) (a target of ipRGCs and origin of the pupil light reflex) to a

This paper discusses the role of short-wavelength-sensitive cones in light-evoked activity in the mouse pretectal olivary nucleus, suggesting a new role for these cones unrelated to color vision.

A distinct contribution of short-wavelength-sensitive cones to light-evoked activity in the mouse pretectal olivary nucleus

Consistent with this view, present-day vertebrate retinas contain a minor class of intrinsically  photosensitize RGCs (ipRGCs). The ipRGCs mediate non-image-forming visual functions

Combinatorial expression of Brn3 transcription factors in somatosensory neurons: genetic and morphologic analysis

cells (ipRGCs) comprise the remainder, with each receptor participating in the PLR. The  rods and cones primarily participate in the early phases of the response, whereas the ipRGCs

This paper investigates the pupillary light reflex in patients with mild traumatic brain injury, finding that pupillary responsivity is significantly delayed, slowed, and reduced in these patients, providing potential biomarkers for the presence of such injuries and photosensitivity.

Understanding the effects of mild traumatic brain injury on the pupillary light reflex

Over the past two decades there have been significant advances in our understanding of  both the anatomy and function of the melanopsin system. It has become clear that rather than

This paper reviews the current understanding of the melanopsin system, focusing on the diversity of melanopsin light responses and the functional specialisation of photosensitive retinal ganglion cell subtypes.

The two‐process model of sleep regulation: a reappraisal

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